The PowerBook 180 laptop is a portable computer made by Apple and part of the PowerBook family of almost thirty different models. Its production launched in 1992. The PowerBook series is the development line of the Macintosh series, as part of which the Macintosh Portable was introduced to the market in 1989. The task of implementing the design development of Apple’s laptops and managing the team was assigned to 3 managers: John Medica (engineering), and Randy Battat and Neil Selvin (marketing).
The PowerBook 180 has a relatively high processing power provided by the Motorola 68030 CPU. It features a power saving function that was already introduced in the 160 model and which allowed the computer to operate at a lower CPU rate. The device has a 2.5-inch, 80 MB hard disk drive as standard, and removeable media is provided in the form of a 1.44 MB, 3.5-inch floppy disks. Operating memory ranges between 4 and 14 MB. The laptop uses an active-matrix, liquid-crystal display (LCD), with a diagonal of 9.5 inches, capable of displaying a four-bit greyscale.
The PowerBook series departs from the Apple products’ Snow White design language, which was established by Hartmut Esslinger and prevailed in 1984-1990. The new design concept was the work of Robert Brunner’s team, which replaced the light colours with graphite grey. Not much attention was paid to the appearance of laptops in the 1980s, and they were simple in form, block-like, and heavy. The PowerBook series of computers, intended to compete with the products of companies such as Toshiba and Compaq, broke out of those standards and offered customers a device installed in a small, compact housing with a clamshell design. The solution was adopted from the first ever laptop computer – the Grid Compass, which was designed by Bill Moggridge in 1982. The edges of computers in the PowerBook range were rounded in order to improve comfort in use. Consistent with the principles of ergonomics the keyboard was set towards the back, leaving room for the user’s wrists on either side of the device. The function of the mouse was fulfilled by a trackball placed centrally below the keyboard line (in the Macintosh Portable model it was located on the right), which allowed it to be operated easily by both the left- and right-handed. The trackball is a sphere built into the computer housing, and its rotary movement is translated into the position of the cursor on the screen thanks to an array of sensors. The technology was developed and patented by Ralph Benjamin in 1946. It was a part of the Royal Navy’s Comprehensive Control System, used to coordinate movements of the fleet and engage enemy ships or aircraft.
Solutions adopted in the PowerBook series set the standard for the design of modern laptop computers.

Authors: Marek Więcek, Filip Wróblewski

A drainage grate allows rain and melt water from streets and pavements to be collected at one point and then fed into the underground storm sewerage system. The presence of sewerage is inseparably connected to the operation of a water supply network. The beginnings of the modern water supply network in Kraków go back to 1901, and that network has been developed and modernised over the ensuing years to become the water supply network we have today. The comfort and quality of life of Kraków’s citizens was far worse before the network was built. Potable water could only be drawn from wells or rivers, and impurities and all liquid waste was discharged directly to open gutters that ran along the city’s streets.
The object presented here was made in one of Kraków’s cast-iron foundries on a commission by construction company run by Tadeusz Stryjeński, one of Kraków’s outstanding architects and heritage restorers. One of the things Stryjeński became famous for was being the first in Poland to use reinforced concrete in his designs.
Interesting fact: Drainage grates are usually made of cast-iron, i.e., a high carbon alloy of iron with carbon. The oldest traces of the use of cast iron by man come from China and are dated from the 5th century B.C. The material was most widely used in the 18th and 19th centuries in different areas of engineering, as a result of the booming development of industry.

References:
Tadeusz Stryjeński, Internetowy Słownik Biograficzny, https://www.ipsb.nina.gov.pl/a/biografia/tadeusz-stryjenski-1849-1943-architekt (Accessed: 10.05.2021).
R. Wierzbicki, Wodociągi Krakowa, Kraków 2011, book available in the Repository of the Technical University of Kraków at: https://suw.biblos.pk.edu.pl/viewResource&mId=444027 (Accessed: 9.05.2021).

The special vacuum-tube magnetic disc recorder MAG-D1 (P-181) (МАГ-Д1, П-181) was designed and manufactured by the Soviet Audio Recordings Institute in Moscow (Всесоюзный научно-исследовательский институт звукозаписи, ВНАИЗ) in 1957. The device was designed as a component of a military communications system and was intended for recording radiotelegraphic Morse code signals. The MAG-D1 model belongs to a numerous family of MAG special-purpose magnetic recorders, and it differs from the other models by the use of a ferromagnetic disc instead of a reel of magnetic tape. It is one of the first devices manufactured in the USSR in which the technology was used for recording radiotelegraph signals. The principle of operation of the recorder is based on magnetic recording. The head system incorporates a magnetic adapter with a needle for readout, which allows two-way recording and playback of the disc. The device uses special discs for recording (similar in appearance to gramophone records), with tractor grooves and ferromagnetic material (ferrous and chromium oxides) applied to the disc surface. Recordings could be deleted by demagnetising the disc in a separate device, or by sliding a bar magnet over the surface of the disc. The recording time at maximum speed is about a minute and a half, but can go up to two minutes. The disc speed during recording and playback can be changed between 35 and 100 rpm. The device has a built-in vacuum tube amplifier, a speaker, and a low-pass, narrow band filter, which allows even a very weak signal to be separated during playback. The device’s mechanism is enclosed in a steel case (the entire device weighs 35 kg) that is covered in a hammered texture paint and has a removable cover. There are handles on both sides of the case, and two rails are attached at the bottom. Knobs on the front wall are for advancing and reversing the recording, and for adjusting volume and tone. The device is AC-powered from the mains supply. Additional equipment for the recorder includes a case for carrying discs and a disc stand. Apart from military applications, the MAG-D1 was used in telephone exchanges, at railway stations and airports, for recording and automatically playing back messages, advertisements, or Morse code signals from the radiotelegraph. It was also used in offices as a voice recorder and answering machine.

Author: Filip Wróblewski

The consumption of alternating current received from the grid by the customer can be measured using induction meters, among other methods. Of those that still remain in production, it is the oldest type of metering device for the measurement of the consumption of alternating current in kilowatt-hours. The device works as follows: two coils are connected to electricity and generate a magnetic field that sets an aluminium disc in motion. The disc is connected to a drum mechanism that allows the meter to be read. In this case, the amount of electrical energy consumed is proportional to the number of rotations of the disc under the influence of the field generated by the coils. Meters of this type produced today enable the measurement of single-phase or three-phase current consumption, depending on what the customers require. A three-phase supply has the best relationship between the efficiency of energy transmission and the cost of operating the electrical grid, and is used wherever a single-phase system does not ensure an adequate energy supply.
The three-phase induction meter presented here was made in the FAE production facility in Warsaw. It was established in 1918 by Kazimierz Tadeusz Szpotański, who is considered to be the pioneer of the Polish electrical engineering industry. The company was the largest enterprise in the 2nd Republic of Poland to deal with electrical equipment production. After a series of ownership transformations, the factory gave rise to the Polish branch of an international electrical engineering corporation, and in this form to this day.
Interesting fact: The high quality and innovation represented by Szpotański’s products was recognised in national and international exhibitions, and the engineer himself was awarded with a number of distinctions, including a Knights Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta.

References:
Inż. Kazimierz Szpotański (1887-1966), prepared by. AM, Website of the Warsaw branch of the Association of Polish Electrical Engineers, http://apw.ee.pw.edu.pl/sep-ow/PLI/szpot/zycior/szpotanKT.htm (Accessed: 9.05.2021).
ZWAR, official website of ABB, https://new.abb.com/about/history/heritage-brands/zwar (Accessed: 9.05.2021).

Manufactured in 1923-1933, the relatively inexpensive Mignon 4 index typewriter was designed to facilitate, and above all automate and accelerate the writing process. One could type on the device by using a pointer suspended above an index, which was a concave board with a table of 84 characters (in a rectangular 7 x 12 layout) attached to the base. The user moved the metal pointer over the selected character using his or her left hand. The position of the drum-shaped type head over a sheet of paper, inserted into the moving carriage of the machine with a rotary rubber platen, changed in accordance with the movement of the pointer over the index board. Pressing one of the three keys to the right of the index impressed the selected character on the paper as the head hit the platen through the ink tape. The other two keys were for adding spaces and moving to the next line, or for returning the carriage with paper. The index and the head could be easily replaced, which allowed the typeface or alphabet used in the device to be changed (e.g., to Hebrew or Cyrillic).
The device was produced by Union Schreibmaschinen GmbH, which was established in 1903 and was a daughter company of the German AEG (German: Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft) electrical engineering group. The company changed its name several times (in 1930 it was known as Europa Schreibmaschinen AG; in 1936 as Olympia Büromaschinen AG). In 1912 the production profile was extended to include standard typewriters. In 1931, the first Olympia typewriter was launched, which gave its name to an entire brand. In the same period the company produced the Enigma encryption device under a licence from Heimsoeth & Rinke.
The operating mechanism of the Mignon typewriters was prepared on a commission from AEG by the German engineer Friedrich Franz Heinrich Philipp von Hefner-Alteneck, on the basis of patent no. 149308 of 1901 submitted by Louis Sell from Berlin. Originally, Sell wanted to create an electrical typewriter. Although the designer’s death in 1903 put a stop to the work on the device, the materials and prototypes that were left allowed it to be brought into mass production. The Minion machines were copied by many other manufacturers including Yu Ess, manufactured in the United States, Stella in France, and Tip-Tip in Czechoslovakia. These copies could be made because the Versailles Treaty annulled the rights to German industrial patents.

Author: Filip Wróblewski

The Podkowa 98 is a light motorcycle of the sub-100 cc class that was extremely popular before World War II. It was produced by Zakłady Przemysłowe Podkowa SA. From 1921, the company was a renowned and esteemed manufacturer of caulkins (studs on a horseshoe that improve a horse’s balance and grip). However, demand for caulkins began to fade in the late 1930s, so the company owner, Józef Folman, sought other sources of income. In 1937, after a thorough market analysis, preparations began to manufacture motorcycles. Contacts were established with different companies, including James, Villiers, and Royal Enfield. The products were to be distributed by the Zorel company of Warsaw. The first motorcycle was presented in 1938.

In terms of engineering design, the Podkowa 98 was a version of the British Baker motorcycle manufactured under a licence and fitted with a Villers 98 engine. The vehicle has design solutions typical of the 1930s: a trapezoid suspension and a stiff link for the rear wheel. The Podkowa plant’s flagship product – caulkins – were used as spacers between the frame structure and the tank.
The elegant and sturdy classic design, coupled with the excellent Villiers engine, ensured good performance and high reliability. Thanks to the attractive price of 860 zlotys, many rallying successes, and good press reviews, the Podkowa 98 attracted a lot of interest on the market. The great popularity of vehicles of its class on pre-war Polish roads also stemmed from the regulations at the time, which relieved adult citizens riding them from the need to hold a driver’s licence or make annual contributions to the National Road Fund.
It was assumed that 1000 units would be produced by the end of 1939. Further plans also envisaged the launch of a 150cc version of the vehicle, as well as a licenced Royal Enfield 250. The initial problems with starting up mass production, followed by the outbreak of war and the destruction of the factories, prevented the plans from becoming reality. About 21 vehicles remain to this day, out of the approximately 130 that were manufactured.

The MOJ 130 – model 1938 is a light touring motorcycle manufactured in 1937-39 by Fabryka Maszyn, Odlewni Żelaza i Metali MOJ in Katowice, which was owned by Gustaw Różycki.
The small manufacturing plant of Schlesische Gruben und Hüttenbedarfsgesellschaft m.b.H was established in 1913 and often changed its owners and names up until the 1930s. In 1933, Gustaw Różycki became its new owner and changed the name again to Fabryka Maszyn, Odlewni Żelaza MOJ. He also expanded it significantly. The factory specialised in the production of mining equipment and while Różycki may not have been a great fan of motor vehicles, in 1935 his plant broadened its production range to include the ever more popular motorcycle.
The MOJ 130 was designed by inż. Karol Zuber who endeavoured to incorporate the best features of foreign machines in it, which is why similarities can be seen with the Zündapp (external frame) and Sachs 98 (engine) vehicles.
Despite the relatively large engine displacement, the MOJ gearbox had only two speeds. Riding it was exceptionally easy and comfortable as the gearing was well chosen and well matched to the high flexibility of the engine.
While the price of the vehicle was not excessive (950 zlotys), the MOJ 130 was a highly valued design due to its reliable build (almost entirely from Polish components), low failure rates, and numerous successes in the motorsports of the era, including off-road rallies. The scale of production was not large – around 600 units were built between February 1937 and September 1939.
The Motorised Cavalry Brigade used several MOJ motorcycles in the defensive war of 1939.

The Syrena 105 is a small-engine passenger car manufactured between 1972-83. Along with the model 105L and derivative versions – the R20 and 105B commercial vehicles – it represents the last development stage of the Syrena, which had been in production since 1957.
The history of the design goes back to the 1950s when the Presidium of the Polish government decided that Poland needed a small engine car in addition to the Warszawa that was already in production. The design work was commissioned from the Fabryka Samochodów Osobowych (FSO) in Warsaw. In 1953, a team of designers headed by Karol Pionnier and including Kazimierz Dębski, Fryderyk Bluemke, Stanisław Panczakiewicz, Jerzy Werner, and Kazimierz Studziński, commenced work. Four years later, on 20 March 1957, production of the vehicle began – the first Syrena was marked as number 100. It is widely considered to be the only Polish-designed passenger car to be mass produced after WWII. In reality, the vehicle copied solutions from the German DKW cars from the 1930s and was already outdated by the time mass production began. Subsequent stages in the car’s development were the Syrena 101, Syrena 102, Syrena 102 S, Syrena 103, Syrena 103 S, Syrena 104, and the Syrena 105 described below.
The design of Syrena 105 and 105L was created in the Passenger Car Research and Development Centre of the Fabryka Samochodów Osobowych in Warsaw as the startup model for the Fabryka Samochodów Małolitrażowych in Bielsko-Biała.
The Syrena 105 can carry four adults. It has a body-on-frame design and a two-door sedan body. The car is propelled by a three-cylinder, two-stroke engine connected to a four-speed transmission that drives the front wheels. The front suspension is of a link design with a transverse spring. In the rear suspension, a transverse spring and a rigid axle are used. Telescopic shock absorbers provide vibration damping. All wheels are equipped with drum brakes. In comparison with the earlier 104, the modernisation of model 105 mostly involved changing the direction of the door opening and the adaptation of some parts, e.g., locks and door handles, from the Polski Fiat 125p.
The nickname of the Syrena comes from a joke: the car ran on a mixture of petrol and oil that emitted blue smoke with a characteristic, unpleasant smell. For that reason, the vehicle was widely known as the “sock”.
In total, 347,648 units were built of the Syrena 105, 105L and R20, and 105B commercial vehicle variants.