The lightbulb has replaced candles, kerosene lamps and gas lamps, which were once the main sources of light in households, industry, and public places. It also contributed to the popularisation of electricity. Every lightbulb has a base connected to a source of electricity, a glass bulb, which sometimes, as is the case in the presented example, also fulfils the function of diffuser of light, and a filament that glows as electricity passes through it. In some cases, lightbulbs have their own switch incorporated. A tungsten filament was used in a lightbulb for the first time by Aleksander Nikolayevich Lodygin in 1890. The choice of tungsten as a material was determined by the most important physical characteristic of this element, i.e., its high melting point (at 3422 °C). The durability of the lightbulb is closely related to its light output, which in turn is the result of the working temperature the filament reaches as it emits light. The greater the light output of the lightbulb, the higher the temperature of its filament and the shorter its life.
The item presented here was made at the Hungarian Tungsram factory, which made light bulbs and electron lamps. The company was established by the Hungarian entrepreneur Béla Egger in 1896. Its name is an interesting combination of fragments of the English and German name of tungsten, i.e.: tungsten, wolfram. In the period of the Second Polish Republic, Zjednoczone Fabryki Żarówek Tungsram, a branch of the Hungarian factory, operated in Poland.
Interesting fact: A dark or silvery tint that sometimes arises on the inside surface of old type lightbulbs that have been used for a long time is a deposit of tungsten released from the filament as it shines. Lightbulbs with a burnt filament often have their bulbs covered with enough tungsten to make them opaque.

References:
The History of Tungsram 1896-1945, Budapest 1990, book available at: http://mek.oszk.hu/08800/08856/08856.pdf (Accessed: 9.05.2021).

The Awangard 55 television receiver is a mains-powered superheterodyne with a built-in speaker, equipped with 19 vacuum tubes and a black-and-white CRT. The device was designed to receive television programmes (on one of the five channels) or radio stations. The Awangard was manufactured by the Nikolai Kozicki Factory – one of Russia’s oldest enterprises in the area of communications and telecommunications technologies. Founded in 1855 in Petersburg as the Siemens and Galske workshop, it was one of the first factories to launch production of telegraph equipment. The production profile was changed many times, depending on current demand. In the 20th century it included radio stations and receivers, communication equipment for the army and navy, and production of television receivers. The Awangard model was developed by the Leningrad Research Institute Number 380. Two models of the television set were manufactured: Awangard TL-1 and Awangard 55. The latter differs from the former in its housing, as the top cover, under which the speaker and control knobs were placed, was eliminated. The modernised version has a channel switch on the side wall. Both models had a built-in antenna, enabling reception of signals from a nearby television studio (between 3 and 5 km). Overall, more than 100,000 units of the Awangard TL-1 (1953) and Awangard 55 (1955 -1958) were manufactured. At the break of 1956 and 1957, production of a copy of the Awangard TL-1 television receiver began in Poland, at the Warszawskie Zakłady Telewizyjne, under the name Wisła.

Authors: Piotr Turowski, Filip Wróblewski

The purpose of the manhole is to secure access to a pit, in which key components of different underground infrastructure systems are located, e.g., a water meter or copper and fibre optic cables. Manholes also protect all kinds of pits in water and sewerage disposal systems (gutter, drainage, sewerage pits etc.). They come in diverse shapes and sizes, and can be made of different materials, as appropriate for the application and where they are located.
This item is a typical example of manholes used in the first half of the 20th century in water supply and sewerage networks. It was made in Polskie Fabryki Maszyn i Wagonów L. Zieleniewski SA, which is one of the oldest machine manufacturers in the territory of Poland. Its beginnings go back to 1804, when Antoni Zieleniewski opened a forge in the centre of Kraków. The founder’s son, Ludwik, grew the company by opening new factories in the city. Unlike many industrial manufacturing plants established in Kraków in the 19th century, the company survived the war and communist Poland. Nowadays, it operates under the name Zakłady Budowy Maszyn i Aparatury im. Ludwika Zieleniewskiego w Krakowie SA, but all production is carried out in nearby Niepołomice.
Interesting fact: These days, maintenance work on underground infrastructure is increasingly done using specialised robots, which replace people where conditions are difficult or hazardous.

References:
Kuźnica Zieleniewskich, Museum of Urban Engineering in Kraków website, https://www.mim.krakow.pl/kuznica-zieleniewskich (Accessed: 9.05.2021).
Z. Wolfram, „L. Zieleniewski” – to brzmi dumnie!, official website of Zakład Budowy Maszyn i Aparatury im. Ludwika Zieleniewskiego w Krakowie 2004, http://www.zieleniewski.com.pl/27,historia,50 (Accessed: 9.05.2021).

The Polski Fiat 126p is a small displacement car produced between 1973-2000 under a licence purchased from Fiat in 1971. Its world premiere on 9 November 1972, took place in two locations – in Turing and on the Plac Defilad square in Warsaw. In the first half of the 1970s it represented the state-of-the-art in its class, with accessible costs of production given the conditions of communist Poland. For that reason, it was rightly hoped that it would bring automotive mobility to Poland.
It was manufactured at the Fabryka Samochodów Małolitrażowych in Bielsko-Biała, and later at the company’s second establishment in Tychy. Initially, the Polski Fiat was merely assembled from Italian components, but later the parts were produced in Poland and some (e.g., engines, gearboxes) were also sent to Italy. Until 1980, the 126 was manufactured both in Italy and in Poland as Fiat and Polski Fiat, respectively. From 1980 it was manufactured only in Poland but still remained part of Fiat’s product range: this was the first such case in the history of the Italian brand.
The popular “Maluch” (eng. “little one”) is a thorough modernisation of the 500 model that had been in production since 1957 and with which it shares the mechanical design. It has a two-door, monocoque “fastback” body. Its dimensions allow it to carry four people and a small amount of luggage. The driveline, consisting of a two-cylinder, naturally aspirated petrol engine, and a four-speed transmission is located at the rear of the vehicle. The engine drives the rear wheels. Independent front suspension is of a multi-link design. It uses a single transverse leaf spring and telescopic shock absorbers. Independent rear wheel suspension comprises oblique links, coil springs, and telescopic shock absorbers. All wheels are equipped with hydraulic drum brakes operating in a two-circuit system without a boosting device. A worm gear is used in the steering system.
The licence for the production of this vehicle provided momentum to the development of individual automotive mobility in Poland. While nowadays we would consider the Fiata 126p as strictly a city car, it was used for pretty much everything you could think of (long distance travel, moving house etc.). By 2000, 3,318,674 units had been produced. The vehicle presented here comes from the first production series, assembled from components delivered from Italy. It is maintained in its original condition.

The Szmaragd 901 OT 1791 black-and-white television set is one of the development variants of TV models of the same name. Three versions of the receiver were made by the Warszawskie Zakłady Telewizyjne: Szmaragd in 1959, Szmaragd 901 two years later (its production ended in 1964), and soon after that – the Szmaragd 902 OT 1711 variant, whose systems were based on printed circuit boards. The Szmaragd 901 allows the reception of 10 television channels (even though only one channel was available in Poland up until 1970). Numerous modifications and corrections were introduced to the original model, which improved the operation of the device. Some structural parts and electrical components were changed. The Szmaragd was developed at the same time as the Turkus and Jantar television sets, hence it shares similar design solutions with them. Although the models and their variants differ from each other, they were developed using parts and components used in the design of the first Polish television receiver, the Belweder.
The modernised Szmaragd model 901 was equipped with a 12-channel switch and a 17-inch CRT. Contrast and brightness adjustment using a remote control was also introduced. In terms of the electrical system, it is a superheterodyne with 17 vacuum tubes, powered with alternating current from the mains and with a built-in magnetoelectric speaker. The design uses a cathode-ray tube with a deflection angle of 90°, which allowed the device to have shallower housing than the previous model.
The break of 1950s and 1960s saw the beginning of a rapid growth of television in Poland. At the beginning of the 1960s, television programmes, hitherto broadcast in different forms by independent regional stations, became centralised. Even though in the early 1960s the number of subscription fee payers was on a par with the number of television sets, there were several times more television viewers than actual television sets. In those days, television was watched together with other household members, often also with neighbours or more distant family. The scale of that phenomenon, as well as the growing demand for TV sets, was demonstrated by the fact that during that period, the number of television subscribers increased by between 300,000 and 400,000 per year. At the beginning of 1960 it was only 426,000 but had reached a level of almost 1.7 million by 1964.

Authors: Piotr Turowski, Filip Wróblewski

The Eroica 3201 is a luxury class radio receiver, which was compared with the German Beethoven radio and its successor, the Stradivari. The name of the radio makes a reference to Ludvig van Beethoven’s 3rd Symphony, composed in 1802-1804. The word “eroica” was taken from the Italian subtitle: sinfonia eroica – heroic symphony. Initially, it was announced that the radio would be called the “Milenium”.
The Eroica is a vacuum tube (superheterodyne) radio receiver designed to receive long, medium and short wave radio stations broadcast in the amplitude modulation (AM) system, and on UHF in the frequency modulation (FM) system. Two versions were built – model 3201 and the improved 3202.
The device was manufactured in 1960 in Zakłady Radiowe im. M. Kasprzaka in Warsaw. It is distinguished by an extensive electrical system with eight circuits for the AM system, and 11 circuits for FM. Furthermore, the electrical system uses a high frequency amplifier operating in a configuration untypical for this kind of receiver. Inside the device there was also a double rotary ferrite antenna. Two mid-range/treble GD 18-13/2 speakers produced by Zakłady Wytwórcze Głośników Tonsil in Września were installed in the side walls, and behind the front wall panel, covered with fabric, an imported Philips bass speaker was installed, or – after that practice was abandoned – an oval Tonsil GD 31-21/5 speaker.
In terms of design, the shape of the radio’s housing adheres to the design standards of the 1950s and early 1960s, and yet, to some extent, its aesthetics break out of the trends of the time. The rounded corners of components, typical for the organic design of the 1950s, was partly abandoned here. These accents are harmoniously combined with the geometry of the form. The symmetry and interplay of planes based on basic figures (i.e., triangle, rectangle) livens up the bulk of the massive radio, giving it elegance and lightness. At the bottom of the front panel are centrally placed key switches in two rows. They allow control of operation with connected devices, changing the wave band, and tone adjustment (also for types such as: “speech”, “jazz”, “solo”, “orchestra”). The keys are positioned around two bass and treble adjustment knobs built into the housing. On the sides of the scale there are two rotary switches for adjusting the volume, setting the antenna, and tuning. There is also a magic eye tuning indicator in a semi-circular plastic bezel.

Authors: Piotr Turowski, Filip Wróblewski

Production of the Aga radio began in Poland in 1947, under licence from Aga-Baltic of Sweden and using parts, components and documentation it provided. The Aga model, as one of the first produced soon after the War, was assembled both at the Państwowe Zakłady Tele- i Radiotechniczne and at the Państwowa Fabryka Odbiorników Radiowych in Dzierżoniów. Due to the high cost of both production and sales, the general impoverishment of society, and ongoing shortages of goods, the Aga radio wasn’t expected to bring radio reception to the masses quickly. As a result, plans were made to develop a Polish design for a cheap radio. Considering the post-war conditions, the Aga is a device with a complex design – it is a mains powered, six-tube, variable amplitude, superheterodyne, designed to receive short, medium and long wave radio. Its components were reused in the design of the Pionier radio, which was targeted at the mass market.
In 1949, the production of the Aga radios was moved to Zakłady Radiowe im. M. Kasprzaka in Warsaw. The receiver underwent modernisation and domestically produced components were incorporated. Over a period of several years, the Aga radio was continually modified and improved, which resulted in the development of seven types: Aga-1742, Aga-1651, RSZ F (the “subscriber Aga”), RSZ-47 (Aga-1743), RSZ-F-3W, RSZ-H-3W and RSZ-F-8W. The differences between them mostly involved the type of vacuum tubes or electric systems used. In the RSZ-47 model, the electron-ray tuning indicator was omitted. The development work on the Aga inspired the ZRK to design completely new receivers, so the Aga gave rise to models such as the Syrena, Wola, and the popular Stolica.

Authors: Piotr Turowski, Filip Wróblewski

The Podhale radio was manufactured in Zakłady Radiowe Diora in Dzierżoniów in 1957-1958. In terms of design it is an evolution of the Śląsk radio, which was produced in the same factory. The Podhale was the first Polish radio receiver allowing reception of ultra high frequency wave, thanks to the built-in, super-reaction tube adapter. The full UHF path wasn’t implemented until the Calypso radio, also produced by Diora. The Podhale also enables reception of radio signals in double ranges of short and medium wave, and it also has one long wave range and the possibility of switching frequencies to the local Warsaw I station. It uses frequency modulation (FM) and amplitude modulation (AM) systems. The receiver has automatic amplification adjustment and separate tone adjustment for bass and treble. In terms of electrics, it is an eight-circuit, AC-powered, superheterodyne, with vacuum tubes. Sound emission is through two built-in magnetoelectric DGWS 20/3 speakers, with a characteristic warm sound. As was the case with the Śląsk, selection of the waveband, as well as switching other functions of the device, is possible using a 10-key switch panel. The built-in socket allows connection of a gramophone adapter to the radio. The Podhale radio was considered a luxury item, and it was designed as a high-quality device. An intricate housing, made of solid wood, was covered in veneer. Two colour versions of the box were available on the market – a black and a light version. In both cases, the veneer on the front plate was assembled of parts composed in a geometric diamond pattern created by the wood grain. Under the vacuum tube tuning indicator in the upper right corner of the front panel there should be a handwriting-styled inscription “Podhale” made of a finely profiled sheet of brass, but unfortunately, many extant units lack this inscription. Perhaps the glue holding it was not durable enough, so the badges fell off and were lost …

Author: Filip Wróblewski

In the second half of the 1870s, Europe became familiar with the latest invention of Alexander Graham Bell – the telephone. Bell had patented his invention in several European countries, but not all of them. One such place was Germany. The opportunity was eagerly seized by Werner Siemens and Johan Halske, owners of the Siemens & Halske company that had been doing well on the telegraph market since 1847. The company produced its first telephone in November 1877, then in December it patented the invention in the territory of Germany (a similar path was pursued by Lars Magnus Ericsson in Sweden). Siemens became the leader in telephone development in Germany for many years.
In the second half of the 1920s, Siemens & Halske sought a telephone model that would break away from the existing design style, be easy to operate and maintain, and could be efficiently fabricated. This led to the development of Siemens & Halske’s most recognisable telephones: the W28 model. It was successfully offered in a tender for the standard German telephone. From 1928, the W28 became the standard telephone model of the Deutsche Reichspost. In the mid-1930s, the German postal service placed an order for the W28’s successor, the W38 model (38 production launch). However, due to the outbreak of the war a year later the new telephone came too late to replace the W28. The flagship Siemens & Halske model of the 1920s and 1930s enjoyed a major export success. The licence for its production was purchased by Tesla in Hungary and Heemaf in the Nederlands, among others. It was also a breakthrough device in terms of its technical design, as it was the first Siemens telephone to use Bakelite.
Siemens & Halske W28 is a telephone for an analogue public switched telephone network (PSTN). Numbers were dialled in the pulse system using a rotary dial. The housing and handset are made of black Bakelite, with a steel base with rounded corners and a flat metal frame mounted on the device front. The dial and the cradle are mounted on the middle front part of the body. The handset is connected to the base with a twisted cable.

It is fair to say that immediately after World War I, as a result of the looting and devastation policies of the occupying countries (Germany and Russia), Warsaw’s public transit was in dire condition. Tram lines were continuously being extended, which led to the urgent need for new rolling stock.
Meanwhile, in 1915 the tsarist Russian government transported the property of the Warsaw company Lilpop, Rau and Loewenstein (328 cars worth 1,475,000 roubles) eastwards, to the Kharkov area. After the October Revolution the factory was nationalised, and it was only in 1921, under the provisions of the Riga Treaty, that some of the machines and equipment could be restored to the Warsaw enterprise that was then struggling to rebuild itself.
The paths of Warsaw’s public transit and the Lilpop, Rau i Loewenstein company crossed in 1925 when Warsaw’s Municipal Trams enterprise placed an order for the construction of 30 motor-driven tram cars. The C-type tram was the first such car designed and built completely by a Polish company, except that imported motors and electrical equipment were installed in them. Their design was based on that of the A and B-type cars made in Germany that were delivered to Warsaw in 1906-1907 and in 1914.
Except for the metal window frames, the C-Type car body is entirely made of wood. Its roof has a lantern design with a skylight in the middle. Electricity was received through a boom collector, which was switched over by hand when the direction of travel was changed. A front covering for the platforms was applied for the first time, by enclosing them in a wooden structure with windows. The platforms were made broader than in previous models and the partitioning walls were equipped with two-leaf sliding doors, with a mechanism allowing both leaves to be moved aside at the same time. The car was equipped with electrodynamic brakes and a manual Clay system parking brake, actuated with a crank from the driver‘s cab. Sand containers were placed under the floor of the passenger compartment, in the corners under the axes. The passenger compartment was lit with five lights, each fitted with two lightbulbs. Three lights were located on the compartment ceiling, the others were placed on either side of the entry platform. The chassis was made of 13 mm pressed steel sheet, with a wheelbase of 2500 mm. The car accommodated sixty passengers, who could avail themselves of one of the 24 seats or 30 standing positions.
C-type tram cars were operated on Warsaw’s tram lines until 1956. Two cars of this type remain to this day, one of which (number 260) is found in the Museum of Urban Engineering in Krakow, where it will undergo a thorough restoration in 2020-2021 thanks to funds obtained by the Museum.